CST8177 – Linux II Shell Scripting 1 .A shell can be used in one of two ways: .A command interpreter, used interactively .A programming language, to write shell scripts (your own custom commands) Shells 2 .If we have a set of commands that we want to run on a regular basis, we could write a script .A script acts as a Linux command, similarly to binary programs and shell built in commands .In fact, check out how many scripts are in /bin and /usr/bin .file /bin/* | grep 'script' .file /usr/bin/* | grep 'script' .As a system administrator, you can make your job easier by writing your own custom scripts to help automate tasks .Put your scripts in ~/bin, and they behave just like other commands (if your PATH contains ~/bin) Shell scripting 3 .As we've already discussed, it's good practice to use a standard header at the top of our scripts .You could put this in a file that you keep in a convenient place, and copy that file to be the beginnings of any new script you create .Or, copy an existing script that already has the header #!/bin/sh -u PATH=/bin:/usr/bin ; export PATH # add /sbin and /usr/sbin if needed umask 022 # use 077 for secure scripts Standard Script Header 4 .The interpreter magic, or "shebang": #!/bin/sh –u .#! need to be the first two characters in the file, because they form a magic number that tells the kernel this is a script .#! is followed by the absolute path of the binary program that kernel will launch to interpret (that is, run) the script, /bin/sh in our case, and arguments can be supplied, –u in our case .The –u flag tells the shell to generate an error if the script tries to make use of a variable that's not set .That will never happen if the script is well written and tested .If it does happen, it's better to stop processing than continue processing garbage. Interpreter Magic, or Shebang 5 .Set the PATH .The script will run the standard commands from the standard locations PATH=/bin:/usr/bin ; export PATH # add /sbin and /usr/sbin if needed .Set the umask .Any files the script creates should have sane permissions, and we lean to the secure side umask 022 # use 077 for secure scripts Standard Script Header (cont'd) 6 .We then follow the header with commands like the ones we type at the shell prompt. .The stdin, stdout, stderr of the of the commands inside the script are the stdin, stdout, stderr of the script as it is run. .When a command in your script prints output to stdout, your script will print that output to its stdout .When a command in your script reads from stdin, your script reads from stdin stdin, stdout,stderr 7 .Today we cover the following scripting topics .Running scripts .arguments passed on the command line .ways to invoke a script .Writing scripts .examining exit status .positional parameters and receiving arguments .variables .interacting with the user .the test program for checking things .control flow with if statements, looping, etc Scripting techniques 8 .we supply arguments to our script on the command line (as with any command args) .command is executable and in PATH command arg1 arg2 arg3 .command.sh is executable and in PATH command.sh arg1 arg2 arg3 .command.sh is executable and not necessarily in PATH ./command.sh arg1 arg2 arg3 Arguments on the command line 9 .We can also invoke the script interpreter directly, with its own arguments .We pass the file containing the script after the interpreter arguments .The shebang line mechanism is not being used in this form sh –u command.sh arg1 arg2 arg3 sh –u ./command.sh arg1 arg2 arg3 .The arguments seen by our script are arg1 arg2 arg3 Arguments on the command line 10 command "a b c" .1 argument .a b c command 'a b c"' "d 'e f" .2 arguments .a b c" and d 'e f command 'a ' b '"def"' .3 arguments .a and b and "def" command 'a b' "c 'd e' f" .2 arguments .a b and c 'd e' f Quoting and arguments 11 .Each command finishes with an exit status .The exit status is left in the variable ? ($?) .A non-zero exit status normally means something went wrong (grep is an exception) .non-zero means "false" .A exit status of 0 normally means everything was OK .0 means "true" .grep returns 0 if a match occurred, 1 if not, and 2 if there was an error Exit Status 12 .On the command line, after running a command we can use echo $? immediately after a command runs to check the exit status of that command [tgk@kelleyt ~]$ ls accounts empty rpm test.sh [tgk@kelleyt ~]$ echo $? 0 [tgk@kelleyt ~]$ ls nosuchfile ls: cannot access nosuchfile: No such file or directory [tgk@kelleyt ~]$ echo $? 2 [tgk@kelleyt ~]$ Checking Exit status 13 .When our script is running, the command line arguments are available as Positional Parameters .The script accesses these through variables. .$# holds the number of arguments on the command line, not counting the command itself .$0 is the name of the script itself .$1 through $9 are the first nine arguments passed to the script on the command line .After $9, there's ${10}, ${11}, and so on Positional Parameters 14 .$* and $@ both denote all of the arguments and they mean different things when double quoted: ."$*" is one word with spaces between the arguments ."$@" produces a list where each argument is a separate word Positional Parameters (cont'd) 15 Positional Parameters (cont'd) 16 table15_2.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: #!/bin/sh -u PATH=/bin:/usr/bin ; export PATH umask 022 # Body of script myvar="howdy doody" echo "The value of \$myvar is: $myvar" #notice backslash echo "The number of arguments is: $#" echo "The command name is $0" echo "The arguments are: $*" echo "The first argument is: $1" echo "The second argument is: $2" echo "The third argument is: $3" Sample script 17 .How to write a command to swap two files? $ cat swap #!/bin/bash mv $1 /tmp/$1 mv $2 $1 mv /tmp/$1 $2 $ cat it1 contents of file1 $ cat it2 contents of file2 $ swap it1 it2 $ cat it1 contents of file2 $ cat it2 contents of file1 $ Sample script 18 .The shift command promotes each command line argument by one (e.g., the value in $2 moves to $1, $3 moves to $2, etc.) $ cat shiftargs #!/bin/bash echo "The args are 0 = $0, 1 = $1, 2 = $2" shift echo "The args are 0 = $0, 1 = $1, 2 = $2" shift echo "The args are 0 = $0, 1 = $1, 2 = $2" shift $ shiftargs arg1 arg2 arg3 The args are 0 = shiftarg, 1 = arg1, 2 = arg2 The args are 0 = shiftarg, 1 = arg2, 2 = arg3 The args are 0 = shiftarg, 1 = arg3, 2 = .The previous $1 becomes inaccessible Shift 19 How to write a general version of the swap command for two or more files? swap f1 f2 f3 ... fn_1 fn f1 <--- f2 f2 <--- f3 f3 <--- f4 ... fn_1 <--- fn fn <--- f1 shift Example 20 .to get input from the user, we can use the read builtin .read returns an exit status of 0 if it successfully reads input, or non-zero if it reaches EOF .read with one variable argument reads a line from stdin into the variable .Example: #!/bin/sh -u read aline #script will stop, wait for user echo "you entered: $aline" Interacting with the user 21 .Use the –p option to read to supply the user with a prompt .Example #!/bin/sh –u read –p "enter your string:" aline echo "You entered: $aline" Interacting with the user (cont'd) 22 .read var1 puts the line the user types into the variable var1 .read var1 var2 var3 puts the first word of what the user types in to var1, the second word into var2, and the remaining words into var3 #!/bin/sh –u read var1 var2 var3 echo "First word: $var1" echo "Second word: $var2" echo "Remaining words: $var3" Interacting with the user (cont'd) 23 .A command or pipeline surrounded by backquotes causes the shell to: .Run the command/pipeline .Substitute the output of the command/pipeline for everything inside the quotes .You can use backquotes anywhere: $ whoami wen99999 $ cat test7 #!/bin/bash user=`whoami` numusers=`who | wc -l` echo "Hi $user! There are $numusers users logged on." $ ./test7 Hi wen99999! There are 6 users logged on. Backquotes: Command Substitution 24 25 Control Flow .The shell allows several control flow statements: .if .while .for 26 Semantics of the if statement 01-029Fig_15_1ar1.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: if list1; then list2 fi .list1 is executed, and if its exit status is 0, then list2 is executed .A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines, but for now, let's say it's a command If statement 27 if list1 then list2 fi 28 Semantics of the if and else statement 01-029Fig_15_1ar1.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: 01-029Fig_15_2ar1.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: .We can include an else clause, with commands to run if list1 is false (has exit status of non-zero) if list1; then list2 else list3 fi if …then … elif 29 if list1 then list2 else list3 fi 30 Semantics of the if…then…elif statement 01-029Fig_15_1ar1.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: 01-029Fig_15_3ar1.pct 000CB8F7 The Brain B3A96F87: .The elif statement combines else and if to construct a nested set of if…then…else structure. if … then … elif 31 if list1 then list2 elif list3 then list4 … else list5 fi 32 Boolean Expressions .Relational operators: -eq, -ne, -gt, -ge, -lt, -le .File operators: -f file True if file exists and is not a directory -d file True if file exists and is a directory -s file True if file exists and has a size > 0 .String operators: -z string True if the length of string is zero -n string True if the length of string is nonzero s1 = s2 True if s1 and s2 are the same s1 != s2 True if s1 and s2 are different s1 True if s1 is not the null string . INTEGER1 -eq INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is equal to INTEGER2 . INTEGER1 -ge INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is greater than or equal to INTEGER2 . INTEGER1 -gt INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is greater than INTEGER2 . INTEGER1 -le INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is less than or equal to INTEGER2 . INTEGER1 -lt INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is less than INTEGER2 . INTEGER1 -ne INTEGER2 INTEGER1 is not equal to INTEGER2 Integer tests (man test) 33 . -n STRING the length of STRING is nonzero . STRING equivalent to -n STRING . -z STRING the length of STRING is zero . STRING1 = STRING2 the strings are equal . STRING1 != STRING2 the strings are not equal String tests (man test) 34 .These are just a few of them See man test for more: . -d FILE FILE exists and is a directory . -e FILE FILE exists . -f FILE FILE exists and is a regular file . -r FILE FILE exists and read permission is granted . -w FILE FILE exists and write permission is granted . -x FILE FILE exists and execute (or search) permission is granted file tests (man test) 35 .A common command to use in the test list of an if statement is the test command .man test .Examples: .test –e /etc/passwd .test "this" = "this" .test 0 –eq 0 .test 0 –ne 1 .test 0 –le 1 Test program 36 if test "$1" = "hello"; then echo "First arg is hello" fi if test "$2" = "hello"; then echo "Second arg is hello" else echo "Second arg is not hello" fi If statement with test 37 [wen001:centOS65 ~]$ ls -li /usr/bin/test /usr/bin/[ 786463 -r-xr-xr-x 1 root root 34716 22 Nov 2013 /usr/bin/[ 786517 -r-xr-xr-x 1 root root 31124 22 Nov 2013 /usr/bin/test .notice that on OSX, [ is another name for the test program: if [ -e /etc/passwd ]; then echo "/etc/passwd exists" fi is the same as if test –e /etc/passwd; then echo "/etc/passwd exists" fi The program named [ 38 $ [ 0 –eq 0 ] $ echo $? 0 $ [ "this" = "that" ] $ echo $? 1 $ [ "this" = "this" ] echo $? 0 $ ["this" = "this"] # forgot the space after [ -bash: [this: command not found $ [ "this" = "this"] # forgot the space before ] -bash: [: missing ']' Practicing with [ 39 . ( EXPRESSION ) EXPRESSION is true . ! EXPRESSION EXPRESSION is false . EXPRESSION1 -a EXPRESSION2 both EXPRESSION1 and EXPRESSION2 are true . EXPRESSION1 -o EXPRESSION2 either EXPRESSION1 or EXPRESSION2 is true Combining tests 40 41 And, Or, Not .You can combine and negate expressions with: -a And -o Or ! Not $ cat test10 #!/bin/bash if [ `who | grep gates | wc -l` -ge 1 -a `whoami` != “gates" ] then echo "Bill is loading down the machine!" else echo "All is well!" fi $ test10 Bill is loading down the machine! .test is a program we run just to find out its exit status .The arguments to the test command specify what we're testing .The spaces around the arguments are important because test will not separate arguments for you: ."a" ="a" is the same as a =a which is two args and test wants three with the second one = .When trying out test examples, we can run test and find out the results by looking at $? immediately after the test command finishes test examples 42 .Alternatively, we can try any example by putting it in an if-statement: if [ 0 –eq 1 ]; then echo that test is true else echo that test is false fi test examples (cont'd) 43 .Is the value of myvar an empty (zero-length) string? [ -z "$myvar" ] .Is the value of myvar a non-empty string? [ -n "$myvar" ] or [ "$myvar" ] test examples (strings) 44 .Is the value of myvar equal to the string "yes"? [ "$myvar" = "yes" ] or [ "$myvar" = yes ] or [ "yes" = "$myvar" ] or [ yes = "$myvar" ] test examples (strings cont'd) 45 .Is the value of myvar NOT equal to the string "yes"? [ "$myvar" != "yes" ] or [ ! "$myvar" = yes ] or [ "yes" != "$myvar" ] or [ ! yes = "$myvar" ] test examples (strings cont'd) 46 .Is the value of myvar a number equal to 4? [ "$myvar" -eq "4" ] or [ "$myvar" -eq 4 ] .Notice that double quotes around a number just means the shell will not honor special meaning, if any, of the characters inside .Digits like 4 have no special meaning in the first place, so double quotes do nothing test examples (integers) 47 .Is the value of myvar a number NOT equal to 4? [ "$myvar" –ne 4 ] or [ ! 4 -eq "$myvar" ] or [ ! "$myvar" –eq 4 ] or [ "$myvar" -ne 4 ] test examples (integers) 48 .Is 00 a number equal to 0? yes [ 00 –eq 0 ] .Is 004 a number equal to 4? yes [ 004 –eq 4 ] .Notice double quotes don't change anything .Is 00 equal to 0 as strings? no [ 00 = 0 ] .Is 0004 equal to 4 as strings? no [ 0004 = 4 ] test examples (integers) 49 .Is abc a number equal to 0? error [ abc –eq 0 ] ERROR abc is not a number .The following is the same as [ 1 ] with stdin redirected from file named 2 [ 1 < 2 ] .Remember we can put redirection anywhere in the command we want: ls > myfile is the same as > myfile ls test examples 50 .Does /etc/passwd exist? [ -e /etc/passwd ] .Does /etc exist? [ -e /etc ] .Does the value of myvar exist as a file or directory? [ -e "$myvar" ] test examples (files) 51 .Is /etc/passwd readable? [ -r /etc/passwd ] .Is /etc readable? [ -r /etc ] .Is the value of myvar readable as a file or directory? [ -r "$myvar" ] .Not readable? [ ! –r "$myvar" ] test examples (files) 52 .If we need to check whether two files both exist, we check for each individually, and combine the tests with –a, meaning AND [ -e /etc/foo –a –e /etc/bar ] .Given a number in myvar we can check whether it's greater than or equal to 4 AND less than or equal to 10 [ "$myvar" –ge 4 –a "$myvar" –le 10 ] test (combining tests) 53 .If we need to check whether at least one of two files exists, we check for each individually, and combine the tests with –o, meaning OR [ -e /etc/foo –o –e /etc/bar ] .Given a number in myvar we can check whether it's greater than or equal to 4 OR less than or equal to 10 [ "$myvar" –ge 4 –o "$myvar" –le 10 ] test (combining tests) 54 .We can use ! to test if something is NOT true .Test whether /etc/passwd is NOT executable [ ! –e /etc/passwd ] test (not) 55 .Just like arithmetic, we use parenthesis to control the order of operations .Remember that ( and ) are special to the shell so they need to be escaped or quoted from the shell .Check whether file1 or file2 exists, and also check whether 1 is less than 2: [ \( -e file1 –o –e file2 \) –a 1 –lt 2 ] .Without parentheses we'd be testing whether file1 exists, or whether file2 exists and 1 is less than 2 test (parenthesis) 56 .Like regular expressions, to get comfortable with the order of operations, we can borrow our comfort with arithmetic expressions test (order of operations) 57 test operation arithmetic alalog comment ( ) ( ) \( and \) or '(' and ')' to protect from shell ! - That's the arithmetic unary "oposite of" operator, as in -4 or –(2+2) -a multiplication -o addition #!/bin/sh -u PATH=/bin:/usr/bin ; export PATH umask 022 echo "You passed $# arguments, and those are:$*:" if [ $# -eq 0 ]; then echo "You didn't give me much to work with" else echo -n "Here are the arguments capitalized:" echo "$*" | tr '[[:lower:]]' '[[:upper:]]' fi Example 1: capitalize.sh 58 .Often the purpose of a script is to produce useful output, like filenames, or maybe a list of student numbers .this output should go to stdout .it may be redirected to a file for storage .we don't want prompts and error messages in there .There may also be other output, like warning messages, error messages, or prompts for the user, for example .this output should go to stderr .we don't want this type of output to be inseparable from the real goods the script produces stderr versus stdout 59 .Here is an example of a good error message echo 1>&2 "$0: Expecting 1 argument; found $# ($*)" .Why is it good? .It redirects the message to stderr: 1>&2 .It gives the user all the information they may need to see what is wrong .$0 is the name used to invoke the script (remember, files can have more than one name so it shouldn't be hard-coded into the script) .$# is the number of arguments the user passed .$* shows the actual arguments, put in parenthesis so the user can see spaces, etc. Error Messages 60 #!/bin/sh –u PATH=/bin:/usr/bin ; export PATH umask 022 if [ $# -ne 1 ]; then echo 1>&2 "$0: Expecting 1 argument; found $# ($*)" else read -p "Enter your string:" userString if [ "$userString" = "$1" ]; then echo "The string you entered is the same as the argument" else echo "The string you entered is not the same as the argument" fi fi Example 2: match.sh 61 for name [ in word... ] ; do list ; done .name is a variable name we make up .name is set to each word... in turn, and list is exectuted .if [ in word... ] is omitted, the positional parameters are used instead For loop 62 for f in hello how are you today; do echo "Operating on $f" done For loop example 63 while command; do # this code runs over and over # until command has # non-zero exit status done While loop 64 while read -p "enter a word: " word; do echo "You entered: $word" done While loop example 65