Updated: 2015-03-30 00:31 EDT
sdb
file
command – what is that thing?fdisk
mkfs
mount
mkswap
and swapon
root
password)Do not print this assignment on paper!
- On paper, you will miss updates, corrections, and hints added to the online version.
- On paper, you cannot follow any of the hyperlink URLs that lead you to hints and course notes relevant to answering a question.
- On paper, scrolling text boxes will be cut off and not print properly.
23h59 (11:59pm) Friday December 5, 2014 (end of Week 14)
WARNING: Some inattentive students upload Assignment #11 into the Assignment #10 upload area. Don’t make that mistake! Be exact.
Do not print this assignment on paper! On paper, you cannot follow any of the hyperlink URLs that lead you to hints and course notes relevant to answering a question.
This assignment is based on your weekly Class Notes.
root
password.)Remember to READ ALL THE WORDS to work effectively and not waste time.
This is an overview of how you are expected to complete this assignment. Read all the words before you start working.
For full marks, follow these directions exactly.
You will create some minimal file system structure in your HOME directory on the CLS.
Most work will involve changes in your own Linux Virtual Machine running Centos 6.6. You can use the Checking Program to check your work as you go. You can check your work with the Checking Program as often as you like before you submit your final mark.
When you are finished, leave the files and directories in place on both the CLS and your own CentOS Virtual Machine as part of your deliverables. Do not delete any assignment work until after the term is over! Assignments may be re-marked at any time on the CLS; you must have your term work available on the CLS right until term end.
All course notes are available on the Internet and also on the CLS. You can learn about how to read and search these CLS files using the command line on the CLS under the heading Copies of the CST8207 course notes near the bottom of the page Course Linux Server.
Review course notes on Partitions and File Systems and Booting and GRUB.
Use the on-line help (man
command) for the commands listed below for more information.
df
– show mounted partitions and amount of used/free space (optionally inodes available) on all mounted file systemsdu
– recursively display disk usage in directoriesfdisk
– to display, create, delete, and manage partitions; CentOS options -lcu
are very usefulfile
– determine what kind of thing a pathname is. Can show disk and partition file system types using option -s
and will follow (dereference) symbolic links using option -L
(upper case)mkfs
– create a file system on a device, usually a hard disk partition.mkswap
– initialize a partition for use as a Linux swap partition.mount
– mount a file system into the main file system tree or display a list of all mounted file systems, including devices, types, and mount pointsswapon
– tell the Linux kernel to use an initialized swap partition.umount
– detach (unmount) a mounted file system (e.g. that was mounted with mount
).uname
– display system information, including kernel release (version) numberrunlevel
– display previous and current system Run LevelParts of this lab must be done using root
user privileges (i.e. using sudo
).
If you start a root
subshell, your prompt will tell you if you are the root
user by changing to include a #
character instead of a $
character. You can also use the commands id
or whoami
to show your current userid.
Some answers require you to record command lines. Do not include the shell prompt with your command lines. Give only the part of the command line that you would type yourself.
Make sure you know the difference between a command line (which is what you type into the shell) and command output (which is what the command displays on your screen). Pay attention to whether the question asks you to record the command line or the command output.
I recommend that once you have booted your CentOS VM, you connect to it and work using a remote login session (e.g. ssh
or PuTTY
) where copy-and-paste works and where you can have multiple simultaneous connections into the VM. The VMware console is not friendly.
Note that SSH sessions (and whatever you are doing inside them) do not survive across a VMware suspend. Make sure you save your editor files and exit your SSH session before you pause or suspend your virtual machine. (Editor sessions that run inside the VMware console do survive across suspend and resume, since they don’t depend on a network connection.)
Advanced users may look into the various virtual terminal programs such as
tmux
andscreen
that do allow you to suspend and resume your sessions even from a remote login.
answer.txt
Where you are required to record or save a command line or its output into The Answer File, do the command and then copy and record the command line or its output as a separate line into an answer.txt
file in your CentOS Base Directory. You will be told how many lines to save in the file.
If you can’t answer a question, leave a blank line in this answer file. (The vim
option :set number
may be useful to you as you edit.)
You can use either nl
or cat -n
to show the contents of a file with line numbers, to make sure each answer is on its correct line number.
Warning: If you try to use appending redirection to write lines onto the end of this file, you can make a mistake and accidentally overwrite and erase the entire file. I recommend setting the shell option
set -o noclobber
to prevent overwriting the file.
You must have successfully completed the CentOS Install and Configure to do this assignment.
Create the CLS directory ~/CST8207-14F/Assignments/assignment12
on the Course Linux Server.
Create the same directory in your sysadmin account on your CentOS VM. This CentOS directory will be the base directory for this assignment.
This CentOS assignment12
directory is the base directory for all pathnames in this assignment. Store your files and answers in this CentOS base assignment12
directory.
Pay careful attention to whether you are working on the CLS or CentOS, and which account you are using! Watch the userid and hostname values in your
PS1
prompt string! All answer files in this assignment get stored in the CentOS base directory, not on the CLS.
sdb
You will add a second hard disk to your CentOS Virtual Machine, and partition it. The procedure for adding a hard disk to an actual physical computer is different only in the steps that take place while the machine is powered off. Any step carried out while the machine is running would be the same for physical machines as it is for virtual machines. The console of a physical machine is its actual keyboard and monitor, but in the case of a VM, the console is the VMware window of the machine.
Most of the system admin commands in this assignment access the raw disk and will require you to gain root
permissions (unless you are in single-user mode and therefore running everything as root
). If you get “permission denied” errors, you forgot to use sudo
.
With your CentOS machine still powered off, use the VMware Settings menu for your CentOS VM to add to your VM a virtual 1GB
hard disk, accepting defaults for everything except the size. See Create VMware Disk. Create the disk exactly 1GB
in size.
After adding the new disk, power on your VM, then login as your system administrator user.
Shortcut: Rather than having to power off your VM, you can add the virtual disk in VMware and then ask Linux to re-scan the SCSI bus to find the new disk without rebooting it:
echo "- - -" >/sys/class/scsi_host/host2/scan
/proc/partitions
file contains the second disk you added.
1048576
.1048576/1024/1024
to confirm the number of gigabytes.sdb1
or sdb2
or other sdb
partitions, this is not a new disk with no partition table. Get help.When the second disk is correct, copy /proc/partitions
to file partitions_before.txt
in your CentOS base directory (6 lines, 20 words). Remember: all files should be placed under your sysadmin base directory on CentOS.
/dev
directory. Put a long (ls -l
) listing of all names under /dev
that start with the first two letters of the new disk name into file sd_all.txt
in your base directory.
file
command – what is that thing?The Unix/Linux file
command is very useful for identifying things in the file system, such as directories, programs, images, files, and special files that might contain file systems, such as disk partitions:
Run file -s
on (the device name of) each of your two disks. Note that your new empty disk says simply data
while your ROOT disk has a very long line full of information about the boot sector and partitions:
# file -s /dev/sd[ab]
/dev/sda: x86 boot sector; GRand Unified Bootloader, ...
/dev/sdb: data
Save the two lines of file
output in a file_s.txt
file (2 lines, 44 words) in your CentOS base directory.
fdisk
You must have added a new
1GB
hard drive in VMware and made sure that Linux sees the new drive, as described above.
Let’s look at the partitions on the first disk (sda
):
Log in to your CentOS machine (unless you are already logged in).
Run (always with root
privileges) fdisk -cul /dev/sda
and you will see the two partitions on your first (sda
) disk that holds your main ROOT file system:
# fdisk -cul /dev/sda
Disk /dev/sda: 2147 MB, 2147483648 bytes
255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 261 cylinders, total 4194304 sectors
Units = sectors of 1 * 512 = 512 bytes
Sector size (logical/physical): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
I/O size (minimum/optimal): 512 bytes / 512 bytes
Disk identifier: 0x00000000
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sda1 * 2048 3074047 1536000 83 Linux
/dev/sda2 3074048 4194303 560128 82 Linux swap / Solaris
DO NOT OVERWRITE /dev/sda
THAT IS YOUR MAIN CENTOS INSTALLATION DRIVE!
Now let’s look at the second disk (sdb
) that should have no partitions:
Run (always with root
privileges) fdisk -cul /dev/sdb
and make sure you see Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB
with no errors and no partitions listed under it.
# fdisk -cul /dev/sdb
Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB, 1073741824 bytes
...etc...
If you don’t see 1073 MB
, then shut down, delete the disk, recreate the disk, and reboot until your 1GB disk install works.
Make sure you only change things on this new
sdb
disk in this section! Thesda
disk is your Linux ROOT disk; if you damage it you will need to recover back to your snapshot. Make sure you have a snapshot to go back to!
man
page for the fdisk
command, locate and make a note of two option letters:
We are now going to run the fdisk
program in interactive mode.
To learn more on how to use
fdisk
, see your in-class notes from the lecture on Partitions and File Systems or see http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Partition/fdisk_partitioning.html
fdisk
interactively as root
using the command fdisk
devicename
, where devicename
is the absolute path of the device corresponding to the new disk under /dev
.
fdisk
starts, read the upper-case WARNING
about DOS-compatible mode. This is a serious (strongly recommended) warning!fdisk
program. Do not continue.fdisk
command, this time inserting the two option letters you found in the man
page, above. (Keep the same device name.)
WARNING
should be gone when you start fdisk
with those two options. (One other harmless warning about an invalid flag will remain. This is normal, since the new virtual disk is empty and has not been initialized yet. Ignore the one warning.)fdisk
options on CentOS. (Other versions of fdisk
use these options as defaults.)You should avoid this DOS warning message in future by always using the
-cu
command line options tofdisk
(RTFM) when you run it, even non-interactively. You might even consider making a shell alias that always supplies these two options tofdisk
every time you use it:alias fdisk='fdisk -cu'
fdisk
utility should now be running in interactive mode, prompting you for input with a different prompt from your BASH shell prompt: Command (m for help):
fdisk
utility prompt.fdisk
program prompt!m
for a list of helpful fdisk
interactive command letters.Inside interactive fdisk
use the command to display the partition table and verify that the disk you are working on is the 1GB
disk (1073MB) with no partition table and no partitions.
Read the list of Command action
commands. Copy the lines below (7 lines, 50 words) into a file fdisk_info.txt
and replace each underscore character with the (one-character) fdisk
command letter that does the listed function:
1. _ save/write partition table to disk (and exit)
2. _ change a partition's type (system id)
3. _ exit/quit fdisk without saving changes
4. _ display/list/print the table of all partitions
5. _ create/add a new partition
6. _ show/display/list partition types (system ids)
7. _ remove/delete a partition
You will need to use every one of these command letters in this assignment. Make sure you get them right.
Use the fdisk
command letter that lists all the two-hex-digit partition types. (Partition types are also called “system identifiers”.) Use that list to answer this:
Add the lines below to the end of the same fdisk_info.txt
file and replace the underscore on each line with the hex type number (system id) of the following partition types, making sure you read the numbers correctly from the screen:
8. _ Linux
9. _ Linux swap / So
10. _ HPFS/NTFS
11. _ W95 FAT32 (LBA)
The swap line, above, is short for Linux swap / Solaris
. You will need all these partition ID numbers later in the assignment.
Your completed fdisk_info.txt
file should be 11 lines 67 words.
Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
fdisk
To learn more on how to use
fdisk
, see your in-class notes or see http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Partition/fdisk_partitioning.html
Below, we will use the correct commands in the fdisk
utility to create the following seven new partitions on your sdb
disk.
Always accept the default proposed by fdisk
for the starting sector of a new partition. Push [Enter]; do not type any numbers. You only need to set the end sector (size) of the new partition using the +size{K,M,G}
syntax shown by fdisk
.
fdisk
will sometimes adjust the size of each partition slightly to fit the DOS partition table disk geometry and sector size. Don’t be alarmed that the size that fdisk
creates and displays to you isn’t exactly the size you asked for.
Use the fdisk
command letter to display the partition table after each change to confirm that you created the correct partition with the correct size.
No changes will be saved to disk unless you explicitly use the fdisk
command letter to save them. You can always quit fdisk
before saving any changes.
First, make sure the disk you are about to change has no partitions configured. If you see partitions, you are using fdisk
on the wrong disk. Make sure you use fdisk
on the new disk device name!
M
, not MB
, inside fdisk
. Using MB
as a suffix creates partitions using power-of-ten MegaBytes (1,000,000) instead of power-of-two MebiBytes.fdisk
command letter to display the partition table to confirm the values and make sure that the size (in blocks) looks correct for the size you requested.Start
sector of this first partition should be 2048
. If it isn’t, you probably forgot to use the option that turns off DOS compatibility. Quit and restart with the correct two options.End
sector must be 411647
. If it is less, re-read all the words in this question, especially the words in the sentence starting with “Use the suffix…”.Number of blocks
must be 102400
. (If it is less, re-read all the words in the previous question.)NOTE: As mentioned in class, you cannot create an extended partition exactly the sum of the sizes of the logical partitions inside it. You need to make the extended a bit larger to accommodate the overhead of the logical partition information. Experiment to see how much “a bit larger” means. The end of the extended partition must be less than sector 2097151 that is the last sector in the disk. (i.e. Don’t use up the whole disk for the extended partition!)
Create these three logical partitions inside the extended partition that you created in the previous step:
If you run out of space creating the logical partitions inside the extended partition, you can delete the extended partition and start over as many times as needed. (You can also start over by exiting fdisk
without saving/writing any of your partition changes.)
Make the extended partition just big enough to contain the logical partitions, no bigger. Try not to have much wasted space between the end of the third logical partition (its end sector) and the end of the extended partition (its end sector). Hint: 610M
is too big; make it smaller.
2097151
W95 FAT32 (LBA)
.Did you remember to set the correct partition types (system id) on each of the seven partitions?
When all seven partitions are created, with the correct types and sizes, save your changes (seven partitions) to disk, which will cause fdisk
to exit. You will return to your shell prompt.
You may find you have created the extended partition “too big” with wasted space at the end; you can re-do the partition smaller. How much smaller? Divide the number of sectors listed by 2048 (the number of 512-byte sectors in a Megabyte) to get the number of Megabytes you can save.
Verify the creation of seven new sdb
partitions using ls -l /dev/sd*
and by looking at the new contents of the system partitions
file, as you did before. You should have exactly seven partitions on this second disk.
Again, copy the system partitions
file into a partitions_after.txt
file. (13 lines, 48 words. You might look and see how it differs from the previous values you copied in partitions_before.txt
. You should see seven new partitions on the new disk.)
From the command line, use fdisk
(non-interactive) to show the partition table for the new disk, always using the above-mentioned two options to give sector (not cylinder) output and avoid the DOS compatibility warnings. Part of the output will look similar to this:
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sdb1 2048 411647 204800 83 Linux
/dev/sdb2 411648 616447 102400 83 Linux
/dev/sdb3 616448 1853439 618496 5 Extended
/dev/sdb4 1853440 2097151 121856 c W95 FAT32 (LBA)
/dev/sdb5 618496 1028095 204800 83 Linux
/dev/sdb6 1030144 1234943 102400 82 Linux swap / Solaris
/dev/sdb7 1236992 1851391 307200 7 HPFS/NTFS
The exact numbers for end and blocks of sdb3
and the start and blocks of sdb4
may differ slightly from the numbers above. All the other numbers should match exactly.
Save the output for your disk into an fdisk_sdb.txt
file (16 lines, 98 words).
Look at your new disk (only the new disk) and record these three answers (just the answers) on lines in The Answer File:
Line 1: Full absolute device names of all primary (not extended) partitions on the new disk.
Line 2: Full absolute device names of all extended partitions.
Line 3: Full absolute device names of all logical partitions.
Hint: Re-read the word absolute in the above sentences.
fdisk
fdisk
interactively. (Remember the two options to avoid DOS warnings!)
Linux
(System ID 83) partitions left.sdb
.fdisk
without saving any changes.
fdisk
interactively again. (Remember the two options to avoid warnings!)sdb5
the other logical partitions above it all renumber themselves downward to keep the first logical partition numbered sdb5
. Logical partitions always number consecutively from 5
.sdb
.fdisk
to exit. You will return to your shell prompt.Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
Take a VMware back-up snapshot now and name it something like done_fdisk
.
fdisk
interactively to delete all the partitions and then re-create them again, without writing out your changes.
mkfs
After partitioning a disk, the next step is making file systems inside the partitions. You must have six partitions available to continue with this section.
To continue with the next sections of this lab, you must have successfully created these six (remaining) partitions on the 1GB disk. Verify that they have exactly the same Device numbers, exactly the same Id
and System
, approximately the same Start
and End
, and approximately the same number of Blocks
.
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sdb1 2048 411647 204800 83 Linux
/dev/sdb2 411648 616447 102400 83 Linux
/dev/sdb3 616448 1853439 618496 5 Extended
/dev/sdb4 1853440 2097151 121856 c W95 FAT32 (LBA)
/dev/sdb5 1030144 1234943 102400 82 Linux swap / Solaris
/dev/sdb6 1236992 1851391 307200 7 HPFS/NTFS
Do not proceed until you have the above six partitions created.
The sizes may vary slightly. The System ID must match. The end of the Extended
partition must be less than the end sector of the disk. There is a large gap between the start of the extended partition and the start of the first logical partition; this gap corresponds to the space left by the deleted 200M logical partition.
All file system commands in the next part of this lab that refer to a hard disk will use one of the above partitions. Do not continue until you have the above partitions created correctly.
Linux
(System ID 83). (These should be exactly two of the six partitions.)
file -s
on this empty partition and note the uninteresting output when the partition has no file system in it.ext3
file system on this partition.
file -s
on this same partition name again to show the type of file system in the partition.
ext3 filesystem data
ext4
this time.
W95 FAT
partition:
vfat
this time.
mkfs.vfat: No such file or directory
whereis mkfs.vfat
yum whatprovides '*/mkfs.vfat'
yum
will update some internal files then tell you that the missing package name is dosfstools
(with a version number).dosfstools
package.
which mkfs.vfat
now finds the command./sbin
is in your PATH
.)vfat
this time.
dosfstools
package, everything will work correctly with no errors.HPFS/NTFS
partition:
ntfs
this time.
mkfs.ntfs: No such file or directory
whereis mkfs.ntfs
mkfs.ntfs
file name.
yum
will update some internal files then tell you No Matches found
yum
repositories for software! :-(
Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
Take a VMware back-up snapshot now and name it something like done_mkfs
.
For practice, repeat this section again, re-typing each of the commands you used to create the file systems. Would you remember how to do this when asked to demonstrate it at a job interview? When installing a new disk? Practice!
mount
After partitioning a disk and creating file systems, next comes mounting the new file systems onto existing directories in the system. You must have created six partitions with three new file systems to continue.
mount
command with no arguments.
vmware-vmblock
device mounted.sda1
), unmount the partitions now before continuing.mount
output as a mount_before.txt
file. (6 lines, 36 words or 7 lines, 42 words if you use VMware)/mnt/ext3
, /mnt/ext4
, and /mnt/vfat
to use as mount points for all the file systems you successfully created above.
mount
command will generate error messages such as mount point /mnt/ext3 does not exist
.mount
commands to mount all three file systems you created previously, each mounted on its own self-named directory. (Recall that each file system was created with a particular type. Match the partition file system type with the directory name.)
mount
can tell. If mount
says you must specify the filesystem type
then almost surely there is no file system created in that partition. Fix it and then try again.mount
commands you used to mount these three partitions. (Remember: The directories must already exist!)Reminder: You almost never need the
-t
option when mounting a file system, since Linux knows the type by looking inside the partition. Ifmount
ever gives the erroryou must specify the filesystem type
, it is because there is no file system created inside that partition. Thefile -s
command can confirm this for you. Create the file system first, then mount it.
mount
mount
without any arguments to verify that you have three new mounted file systems. Each file system type should match the directory name on which it is mounted. Each file system should be mounted only once. (If you have duplicate entries, unmount them using the umount
command.)
mount
output as a mount_after.txt
file. (9 lines, 54 words or 10 lines, 60 words if you use VMware)root
) of file -s /dev/sd*
as a file_after.txt
file. (10 lines)
needs journal recovery
on three lines, including the two newly-mounted Linux file systems.root
) of the command blkid
as a blkid_after.txt
file. (at least 5 lines)
UUID
values that you could use to uniquely identify each partition in the first column of the /etc/fstab
file. (Do not use UUID
mount names in this assignment; use the device partition names when the time comes.)ls -lid / /mnt/ext?
to see the inode numbers of the three Linux directories mounted on your system.
2
. Aren’t inode numbers supposed to be unique? (Review Links and Inodes.) Know why these three directories have the same inode number. (This question may appear on your final exam.)done_3mount
.df
df
(“disk free”) command shows information about mounted file systems, including the amount of disk space used and disk space still available. A useful option is -h
that shows output in “human-readable” form.
df -h
to see the sizes of the file systems.The two new, empty Linux file systems we just mounted show about 5.6MB
and 1.6M
of space used, even though the file systems contain no files yet. Know why a new file system is not empty; this question may appear on your final exam.
If you add up the Used
plus Available
disk space on a VFAT
(DOS) file system, it exactly equals the Size
of the file system. If you add up Used
+Available
on a Linux
file system, it is usually about 5% smaller than the Size
of the file system. Why? (This question may appear on your final exam.)
du
The
du
command walks the file system and recursively shows the disk usage in every directory under a directory.
- With the
-s
option, only thesummary
of the disk usage is shown.- With the
-h
option, the output is given in “human-readable” form (similar to the same option todf
).- With the
-x
option,du
will stay within a file system and not follow directories that are mount points.
du
to show a summary of the human-readable amount of disk space on only the /
(ROOT) file system.
Compare the speed of running the above du
command (which has to walk the entire ROOT directory tree) against the speed of running df
in the previous section. This is why sysadmin prefer df
!
mount_before.txt
file: only six or seven lines.Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
mkswap
and swapon
Linux swap
partition on your new 1GB disk.
file -s
on the Linux swap
partition.
swap file
swap.txt
file. (3 lines, 15 words)Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
Take a VMware back-up snapshot now and name it something like done_swap
.
For practice, repeat this section again, re-typing each of the commands you used to initialize and enable the swap partition. Would you remember how to do this when asked to demonstrate it at a job interview? When installing a new disk? Practice!
Your Linux kernel has a version number, as in
“What version of the kernel are you running? I’m running version 2.6.32
”.
The version number is often followed by a dash and some sub-version numbers and qualifiers, e.g. 2.6.32-504.1.3.el6.i686
.
Unfortunately, the command that prints system information, including the kernel version number, calls the number a kernel release number, because it uses the option name version to stand for the kernel compile date. When using this system information command you must use the option named release to display the kernel version number.
2.
on CentOS 6 and is at least 19 characters long (but may be longer, if you have upgraded your CentOS VM kernel recently).3.
on the CLS – the CLS runs a newer kernel than CentOS.Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
root
password)If you find yourself locked out of a Linux machine, and you have access to the console, booting into single user mode will will often not require a password, and in single-user mode you are given a
root
shell and can change passwords or perform various other repair tasks. (Some systems do password-protect single-user mode, in which case you would need to boot a “live” or “rescue” CD to reset yourroot
password.)
Review Booting and GRUB.
This section depends on a successful CentOS Virtual Machine installation, including a visible (not hidden) GRUB menu. (You made these changes when you configured CentOS in an earlier assignment.)
To change a forgotten root
password or do maintenance on the system that requires it to be quiescent (no users or disk activity), you can boot your system in a restricted single-user mode that does not start many system daemons and goes directly into a root
shell prompt on the system console without requiring a password.
The system should not be left in single-user mode; many service programs are not started. Networking may not be enabled; you may not even be able to log-in remotely in single-user mode.
kernel
line in that file. Note all the options used on the right end of the kernel
line; you will see them again soon.
Record on Line 22 in The Answer File the kernel option keyword used in booting a machine single-user (maintenance mode). (one word)
ssh
sessions will be killed across a reboot.hiddenmenu
command in GRUB, you will boot directly to the GNU GRUB menu where you should see a list of CentOS systems to boot and at the bottom a 30 second countdown in progress.hiddenmenu
, when the countdown is interrupted your system should display the one-entry GRUB menu.)a
– just the letter key, no [Enter]
key!
a
you will see your cursor on a line that ends with the same kernel
arguments you viewed earlier in the configuration file.[Home]
key to zoom to the left end of the kernel options line, and the [End]
key to zoom to the right:root
shell prompt. (If you get a login
prompt, you didn’t use the right kernel option keyword. Reboot into GRUB and try again.)
root
function at this prompt, including changing passwords (even the root
password).From the single-user shell, place a full list of all processes for all users, BSD format, text user name (not numeric UID), full wide listing (not truncated at all), into a psbsd_single.txt
file. (All assignment answer files must be saved in your sysadmin base directory.) The output should be approximately 55 lines and 4KB. (If you have many more than this, perhaps you mistakenly set your VM to use more than 1 processor?) All the processes in the listing will be owned by root
. The first two lines should look similar to this:
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND
root 1 0.0 0.5 2900 1380 ? Ss 16:35 0:01 /sbin/init
Remember to fix the owner and group of the file.
Use the command that displays the previous and current Run Level (two words on one line) and record this line of output as Line 23 in The Answer File.
login
prompt should appear on the console.Run the Fetch and Checking Program to verify your work so far.
That is all the tasks you need to do.
Log in to the CLS and submit your mark from the CLS following the Checking Program instructions below.
Optional: Keeping your main configuration snapshots, remove any intermediate snapshots you no longer require, to free up disk space. - Be careful not to remove your current work!